Aksum the African Iron Age Kingdom

Aksum (also spelled Axum or Aksoum) is the name of a powerful urban Iron Age Kingdom in Ethiopia that flourished between the first century BC and the 7th/8th centuries AD. The Aksum kingdom is sometimes known as the Axumite civilization.   The Axumite civilization was a Coptic pre-Christian state in Ethiopia, from about AD 100-800. The Axumites were known for massive stone stelae, copper coinage, and the importance of their large, influential port on the Red Sea, Aksum. Aksum was an extensive state, with a farming economy, and deeply involved in trade by the first century AD with the Roman empire. After Meroe shut down, Aksum controlled trading between Arabia and Sudan, including goods such as ivory, skins, and manufactured luxury goods. Axumite architecture is a blend of Ethiopian and South Arabian cultural elements. The modern city of Aksum is located in the northeastern portion of what is now the central Tigray in northern Ethiopia, on the horn of Africa. It lies high on a plateau 2200 m (7200 ft) above sea level, and in its heyday, its region of influence included both sides of the Red Sea. An early text shows that trade on the Red Sea coast was active as early as the 1st century BC. During the first century AD, Aksum began a rapid rise to prominence, trading its agricultural resources and its gold and ivory through the port of Adulis into the Red Sea trade network and thence to the Roman Empire. Trade through Adulis connected eastward to India as well, providing Aksum and its rulers a profitable connection between Rome and the east. Aksum Chronology Post-Aksumite after ~AD 700 - 76 Sites: Maryam SionLate Aksumite ~AD 550-700 - 30 Sites: Kidane MehretMiddle Aksumite ~AD 400/450-550 - 40 Sites: Kidane MehretClassic Aksumite ~AD 150-400/450 - 110 Sites: LP 37, TgLM 98, Kidane MehretEarly Aksumite ~50 BC-AD 150 - 130 Sites: Mai Agam, TgLM 143, MataraProto-Aksumite ~400-50 BC - 34 Sites: Bieta Giyorgis, Ona NagastPre-Aksumite ~700-400 BC - 16 known sites, including  Seglamen, Kidane Mehret, Hwalti, Melka, LP56 (but see discussion at Yeha) The Rise of Aksum The earliest monumental architecture indicating the beginnings of the polity of Aksum has been identified at Bieta Giyorgis hill, near Aksum, beginning about 400 BC (the Proto-Aksumite period). There, archaeologists have also found elite tombs and some administrative artifacts. The settlement pattern also speaks to the societal complexity, with a large elite cemetery located on the hilltop, and small scattered settlements below. The first monumental building with semi-subterranean rectangular rooms is Ona Nagast, a building that continued in importance through the Early Aksumite period. Proto-Aksumite burials were simple pit graves covered with platforms and marked with pointed stones, pillars or flat slabs between 2-3 meters high. By the late proto-Aksumite period, the tombs were elaborated pit-graves, with more grave goods and stelae suggesting that a dominant lineage had taken control. These monoliths were 4-5 meters (13-16 feet) high, with a notch in the top. Evidence of the growing power of social elites is seen at Aksum and Matara by the first century BC, such as monumental elite architecture, elite tombs with monumental stele and royal thrones. Settlements during this period began to include towns, villages, and isolated hamlets. After Christianity was introduced ~350 AD, monasteries and churches were added to the settlement pattern, and full-fledged urbanism was in place by 1000 AD. Aksum at its Height By the 6th century AD, a stratified society was in place in Aksum, with an upper elite of kings and nobles, a lower elite of lower-status nobles and wealthy farmers, and ordinary people including farmers and craftsman. Palaces at Aksum were at their peak in size, and funerary monuments for the royal elite were quite elaborate. A royal cemetery was in use at Aksum, with rock-cut multi-chambered shaft tombs and pointed stelae. Some underground rock-cut tombs (hypogeum) were constructed with large multi-storied superstructures. Coins, stone and clay seals and pottery tokens were used. Aksum and the Written Histories One reason we know what we do about Aksum is the importance placed on written documents by its rulers, particularly Ezana or Aezianas. The oldest securely dated manuscripts in Ethiopia are from the 6th and 7th centuries AD; but evidence for parchment paper (paper made from animal skins or leather, not the same as parchment paper used in modern cooking) production in the region dates to the 8th century BC, at the site of Seglamen in western Tigray. Phillipson (2013) suggests a scriptorium or scribal school may have been located here, with contacts between the region and the Nile Valley. During the early 4th century AD, Ezana spread his realm north and east, conquering the Nile Valley realm of Meroe and thus becoming ruler over part of both Asia and Africa. He constructed much of the monumental architecture of Aksum, including a reported 100 stone obelisks, the tallest of which weighed over 500 tons and loomed 30 m (100 ft) over the cemetery in which it stood. Ezana is also known for converting much of Ethiopia to Christianity, around 330 AD. Legend has it that the Ark of the Covenant containing the remnants of the 10 commandments of Moses was brought to Aksum, and Coptic monks have protected it ever since. Aksum flourished until the 6th century AD, maintaining its trade connections and a high literacy rate, minting its own coins, and building monumental architecture. With the rise of the Islamic civilization in the 7th century AD, the Arabic world redrew the map of Asia and excluded the Axumite civilization from its trade network; Aksum fell in importance. For the most part, the obelisks built by Ezana were destroyed; with one exception, which was looted in the 1930s by Benito Mussolini, and erected in Rome. In late April 2005, Aksums obelisk was returned to Ethiopia. Archaeological Studies at Aksum Archaeological excavations at Aksum were first undertaken by Enno Littman in 1906  and concentrated on the monuments and the elite cemeteries. The British Institute in Eastern Africa excavated at Aksum beginning in the 1970s, under the direction of Neville Chittick and his student, Stuart Munro-Hay. More recently the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Aksum has been led by Rodolfo Fattovich of the University of Naples ‘L’Orientale’, finding several hundreds of new sites in the Aksum area. Sources Fattovich, Rodolfo. Reconsidering Yeha, c. 800–400 BC. African Archaeological Review, Volume 26, Issue 4, SpringerLink, January 28, 2010. Fattovich, Rodolfo. The Development of Ancient States in the Northern Horn of Africa, c. 3000 BC–AD 1000: An Archaeological Outline. Journal of World Prehistory, Volume 23, Issue 3, SpringerLink, October 14, 2010. Fattovich R, Berhe H, Phillipson L, Sernicola L, Kribus B, Gaudiello M, and Barbarino M. 2010. Archaeological Expedition at Aksum (Ethiopia) of the University of Naples LOrientale - 2010 Field Season: Seglamen. Naples: Università   degli studi di Napoli LOrientale. French, Charles. Expanding the research parameters of geoarchaeology: case studies from Aksum in Ethiopia and Haryana in India. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Federica Sulas, Cameron A. Petrie, ResearchGate, March 2014. Graniglia M, Ferrandino G, Palomba A, Sernicola L, Zollo G, DAndrea A, Fattovich R, and Manzo A. 2015. Dynamics of the Settlement Pattern in the Aksum Area (800-400 BC): An ABM Preliminary Approach. In: Campana S, Scopigno R, Carpentiero G, and Cirillo M, editors. CAA 2015: Keep the Revolution Going. University of Siena Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p 473-478. Phillipson, Laurel. Lithic Artefacts as a Source of Cultural, Social and Economic Information: the evidence from Aksum, Ethiopia. African Archaeological Review, Volume 26, Issue 1, SpringerLink, March 2009. Phillipson, Laurel. Parchment Production in the First Millennium BC at Seglamen, Northern Ethiopia. The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, JSTOR, September 2013. Yule P. 2013. A Late Antique Christian king from ?afar, southern Arabia. Antiquity 87(338):1124-1135.

The Lady Or The Tiger by Frank Stockton Essay - 647 Words

The Lady Or The Tiger? by Frank Stockton Standing in the center of a larger arena was a young youth whose faith was in the balances. Spectators raise steely on all sides directly in front of him awaiting his death. In front of him was two massive doors behind one were life and bliss, behind another lies a man-eating beast. The choice he makes of the two doors solely depending on a Semi-Barbaric princess. Whose train of thought might be different from that of a person who is sound of mind. Being of her background, she would easily have led the youth to the door of the beast. Her choice would reflect these three reasons her jealousy, upbringing and her pride. Jealousy can consume a person and alter their frame of mind. In the†¦show more content†¦His fervent and imperious ways were in instilled in her since birth. Knowing the princess’s nature, the king did not just â€Å"happen† to find out about their affair it was planned. The fact was obvious, her choice in men was not one of which her father would approve. The discovery was a perfect way to ride her of the youth. She had no future. This passage has even implied that she took pleasure in attending and was so terribly interested. Her interest was not to see her lover with another woman but to see him being ripe apart by the savage relentless beast. Lastly, her pride would have been hurt. Being royalty, a princess would have standards and responsibility to uphold. A king’s daughter should not associate with peasants. Lead alone has an affair with one. What better way then to send him to his death, By doing this she would gain the respect back from her father back and the kingdom would soon forget her behavior. Concluding with these three reason her jealousy, pride and your upbringing this story would have had an alternate ending. While the young man was reaching his hand to open the right door, he changed his mind. 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Chapter 42 Veterinary Sanitation and Aseptic Technique Example For Students

Chapter 42 Veterinary Sanitation and Aseptic Technique Question Answer antiseptics solutions the destroy microorganisms or inhibit their growth on living tissue and are effective disinfecting agents asepsis the practice of keeping a sterile environment and keeping the environment disease and contaminant free aseptic technique governs how the facility is cleaned, how equipment and instruments are cleaned, and how surgical and medical procedure are performed autoclave a piece of a equipment in the form of a sealed chamber in which objects are exposed to heat and steam under pressure at extremely hot temperatures to kill all living organisms cleaning the process of physically removaling all visible signs of dirt and organic matter such as feces, blood, and hair cold sterilization the process of soaking items in disinfectant chemical until they are necessary for reuse cold tray holds a chemical that acts as a sterilizing agent dilution to lessen in strength by adding another component such as water disinfecting the process of destroying most microorganisms on nonliving things by physical or chemical means dry heat method of sterilization through the use of a flame by exposing an item to extreme heat or through incineration filtration removing particles from the air using a physical barrier, common in lab areas or research facilities incineration the buring of infectious materials or animal carcasses incinerator a device used to burn the remains if items that have the potential to spread disease isolation ward separate housing that groups similar patients, making it safe for all animals and staff nosocomial infection when a human causes the spread of disease and contamination of an animal physical cleaning the most common method of sanitary control within the vet facility radiation using ultraviolet or gamma rays that radiate and kill living organisms sanitation the process of keeping an area clean and neat spectrum wide variety of factors sterile technique washing the hands frequently, wearing gloves when handling animals or other possible contaminants, and cleaning all surfaces with disinfectants to prevent spread of disease sterilization kill all living organisms on a surface sterilizing destroying all microorganisms and viruses on an object using chemicals and/or extreme heat or cold under pressure ultrasound passing high frequently sound waves through a solution to create a vibration to remove debris